Meenakshi Malhotra; T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair

Evolution of Knowledge Representation and Retrieval Techniques

Full Text (PDF, 385KB), PP.29-35

Views: 0 Downloads: 0

Author(s)

Meenakshi Malhotra ^1,* T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair ²

1. Dayanand Sagar Institutions, RIIC, Bangalore, 560078, India

2. Saudi Aramco Endowed Chair, Technology and Information Management, PMU KSA

* Corresponding author.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5815/ijisa.2015.07.03

Received: 20 Nov. 2014 / Revised: 3 Feb. 2015 / Accepted: 3 Apr. 2015 / Published: 8 Jun. 2015

Index Terms

Informledge System, Knowledge-Based Systems, Knowledge Graphs, Ontology, Semantic Web

Abstract

Existing knowledge systems incorporate knowledge retrieval techniques that represent knowledge as rules, facts or a hierarchical classification of objects. Knowledge representation techniques govern validity and precision of knowledge retrieved. There is a vital need to bring intelligence as part of knowledge retrieval techniques to improve existing knowledge systems. Researchers have been putting tremendous efforts to develop knowledge-based system that can support functionalities of the human brain. The intention of this paper is to provide a reference for further research into the field of knowledge representation to provide improved techniques for knowledge retrieval. This review paper attempts to provide a broad overview of early knowledge representation and retrieval techniques along with discussion on prime challenges and issues faced by those systems. Also, state-of-the-art technique is discussed to gather advantages and the constraints leading to further research work. Finally, an emerging knowledge system that deals with constraints of existing knowledge systems and incorporates intelligence at nodes, as well as links, is proposed.

Cite This Paper

Meenakshi Malhotra, T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair, "Evolution of Knowledge Representation and Retrieval Techniques", International Journal of Intelligent Systems and Applications(IJISA), vol.7, no.7, pp.18-28, 2015. DOI:10.5815/ijisa.2015.07.03

Reference

[1]C. Bizer, et al., "DBpedia - A crystallization point for the Web of Data," Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the WWW, pp 154-165, 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002.
[2]B. Kosko, Fuzzy Thinking The New Science of Fuzzy Logic, Hyperion, 1993.
[3]R. L. Ackoff, "From data to wisdom,” J. of Applied Systems Analysis, vol. 15, pp. 3-9, 1989.
[4]A. Barr, and E. Feigenbaum, The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, vol. 1, William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981.
[5]T.Berners-Lee, "Artiﬁcial Intelligence and the Semantic Web," AAAI Keynote, W3C Web site, 2006, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/2006/Talks/0718-aaai-tbl/Overview.html.
[6]K. Bollacker, P.Tufts, T. Pierce, and R. Cook, "A Platform for Scalable, Collaborative, Structured Information Integration," 6th International Workshop on Information Integration on the Web, AAAI, 2007.
[7]F. Bouthillier, andK. Shearer, "Understanding knowledge management and information management: the need for an empirical perspective," Information Research, 8, 2002.
[8]C. Brewstera, and K. O’Hara, "Knowledge representation with ontologies: Present challenges—Future possibilities," Int. J. of Human-Computer Studies, vol. 65, pp. 563–568, 2007, doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2007.04.003.
[9]D. Brickley, and R. Guha, "RDF vocabulary description language 1.0: RDF schema," w3.org, 2004, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/tr/rdf-schema/.
[10]D. Buscaldi, and M. C. S. Figueroa, "Effects of Ontology Pitfalls on Ontology-based Information Retrieval Systems," Knowledge Encoding and Ontology Development, INSTICC, 2013.
[11]Cloete, and M. J. Zurada, Knowledge-Based Neurocomputing, The MIT Press, ch1, 2000.
[12]J.W. Coffey, R.R. Hoffman, A.J. Cañas, and K.M. Ford, "A Concept Map-based Knowledge Modeling Approach to Expert Knowledge Sharing," The Int. Conf. on Information and Knowledge Sharing, 2002.
[13]R. Davis, H. Shrobe, and P. Szolovits, "What is a Knowledge Representation?," AI Magazine, 14, pp. 17-33, 1993.
[14]J. G. Delgado-Frias, S. Vassiliadis, and J. Goshtasbi, "Semantic Network Architectures – An Evaluation," Int. J. Artif. Intell. Tools, vol. 01, issue. 01, 1992, pp. 57-83, Doi: 10.1142/S0218213092000132.
[15]M. Frické, “The knowledge pyramid: a critique of the DIKW hierarchy,” J. of Inf. Sc., vol. 35, 2009, pp. 131-142.
[16]"Getting started with Apache Jena," 2014, retrieved from http://jena.apache.org/getting_started/index.html
[17]José Manuel Gómez-Pérez and Carlos Ruiz , "Ontological Engineering and the Semantic Web", Advanced Techniques in Web Intelligence – I, in Studies in Computational Intelligence, vol. 311, Juan D. Velásquez and Lakhmi C. Jain, Eds. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010, pp. 191-224, DOI10.1007/978-3-642-14461-5_8.
[18]Google Developers, "Get Started with the Freebase API," 2013, retrieved from https://developers.google.com/ freebase/v1/getting-started.
[19]D. Graupe, "Principles of Artificial Neural Networks," Advd. Series on Circuits and Systems, vol. 6, 2nd edn., World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd, Singapore, 2007.
[20]T. R.Gruber, "A translation approach to portable ontology specifications," In: Knowledge Acquisition, Academic Press, 1993, pp. 199-220.
[21]N. Guarino, "Formal Ontology in Information Systems," Proc. In Formal Ontology in Information Systems, Nicola Guarino Ed., IOS Press, 1998, pp. 3-15.
[22]S. Hawke, I. Herman, P. Archer, and E. Prud'hommeaux, "W3C Semantic Web Activity", 2013, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/.
[23]F. Hayes-Roth, and N. Jacobstein, "The state of knowledge-based systems," Communications of the ACM, 37(3), 1994, pp. 26-39, DOI: 10.1145/175247.175249.
[24]J. Hendler, and F. V. Harmelen, "The Semantic Web: webizing knowledge representation," in Handbook of Knowledge Representation, F. Van Harmelen, V. Lifschitz and B. Porter Eds., Elsevier, 2008, pp. 821-839. DOI: 10.1016/S1574-6526(07)03021-0.
[25]J. Hendler, T. Berners-Lee, and E. Miller, 2002. "Integrating Applications on the Semantic Web," Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, vol. 122, issue.10, 2002, pp. 676-680.
[26]Herman, "W3C Semantic Web Frequently Asked Questions," 2009, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/RDF/FAQ 2009-11-12.
[27]Herman, 2012. "Semantic Web Adoption and Applications," 2012, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/People/Ivan/CorePresentations/Applications/.
[28]J. Hoart, F.M. Suchanek, K. Berberich, and G. Weikum, "YAGO2: A spatially and temporally enhanced knowledge base from Wikipedia," Artiﬁcial Intelligence, vol. 194, 2013, pp. 28–61.
[29]L. B. Holder, Z. Markov, and I. Russell, 2006. "Advances in Knowledge Acquisition and Representation," J. Artif. Intell. Tools, vol. 15, issue 6, pp. 867-874, doi: 10.1142/S0218213006003016.
[30]R. M. Kitchin, "Cognitive maps: What are they and why study them?," In Proceedings of Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol.14, 1994, pp. 1-19, DOI: 10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80194-X.
[31]G. Klyne, and J.J. Carroll, "Resource Description Framework (RDF): Concepts and Abstract Syntax," W3C Recommendation, 2004, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-concepts/.
[32]P. L´opez-Garc´ıa, E. Mena, and J. Berm´udez, "Some Common Pit Falls in the Design of Ontology Driven Information Systems," Knowledge Encoding and Ontology Development, INSTICC Press, 2009, pp 468-471.
[33]O.Lassila, and R. R. Swick, "Resource Description Framework (RDF) Model and Syntax Specification," W3C Recommendation, 1999, retrieved from http://www.w3.org/TR/1999/REC-rdf-syntax-19990222/.
[34]J. Lehmann, et al. 2012. "DBpedia - A Large-scale, Multilingual Knowledge Base Extracted from Wikipedia," Semantic Web, vol. 1, 1OS Press, 2012, pp 1–5.
[35]E.Y.Li, "Artificial neural networks and their business applications." Inf. & Management, vol. 27, 1994, pp. 303-313.
[36]D. Lindley, "Brain and Bytes," Communications of the ACM, Science, vol. 53, issue 9, ACM New York, Sept. 2010, pp. 13-15, doi: 10.1145/1810891.1810897.
[37]V. Mascardi, V. Cordì, and P. Rosso, "A comparison of upper ontologies," Technical Report, University of Genova, Italy, 2006.
[38]C. T. Meadow, B.R. Boyce, and D.H. Kraft, Text information retrieval systems, 2nd ed., 2000, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 2000.
[39]D. Montag, 2013. "Understanding Neo4j Scalability," White Paper, Neotechnology 2013, retrieved from http://info.neotechnology.com/rs/neotechnology/images/Understanding Neo4j Scalability (2) .pdf.
[40]M. Morsey, J. Lehmann, S. Auer, C. Stadler, and S. Hellmann, “DBpedia and the live extraction of structured data from Wikipedia," Program: Electronic library and Information Systems, vol. 46, issue 2, 2012, pp. 157 – 181.
[41]T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair, and M. Malhotra, "Informledge System- A Modified Knowledge Network with Autonomous Nodes using Multi-lateral Links," Knowledge Encoding and Ontology Development (KEOD), 2010, pp. 473 -477, DOI: 10.5220/0003069103510354.
[42]T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair, and M. Malhotra, "Knowledge Embedding and Retrieval Strategies in an Informledge System," International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (ICIKM), July 2011, pp. 351-354.
[43]T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair, and M. Malhotra, 2011b. "Creating Intelligent Linking for Information Threading in Knowledge Networks," IEEE-INDICON, December 2011, pp. 17–18, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1109 /INDCON.2011.6139335.
[44]T. R. Gopalakrishnan Nair, and M. Malhotra, 2012. "Correlating and Cross-linking Knowledge Threads in Informledge System for Creating New Knowledge," Knowledge Encoding and Ontology Development (KEOD), 2012, pp. 251-256, DOI: 10.5220/0004143302510256.
[45]Niles, and A. Pease, 2001. "Towards a Standard Upper Ontology," Proceedings in Formal Ontology in Information Systems, ACM, 2001, DOI: 1-58113-377-4/01/0010.
[46]K., Niwa, K. Sasaki, and H. Ihara, "An Experimental Comparison of Knowledge Representation Schemes," AI Magazine, vol.5, issue 2, 1984, pp. 29-36.
[47]J. D. Novak, and A. J. Cañas,"The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct Them," Technical Report IHMC CmapTools, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, 2008.
[48]J. D Novak, and D. B. Gowin, Learning How to Learn, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 15-40.
[49]N. F. Noy, and D. L McGuinness, Ontology Development 101: A Guide to Creating, 2001, retrieved from http://protege.stanford.edu/publications/ontology_development /ontology101.pdf.
[50] A. Pease, Ontology Development Pitfalls, 2011, retrieved from http://www.ontologyportal.org /Pitfalls.html
[51]D. Ramachandran, P. Reagan, and K. Goolsbey, "First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efﬁciency in a Common-Sense Ontology," AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications, 2005.
[52]E. Rich, K. Knight, and S.B. Nair, Artificial Intelligence, 3rd ed., 2010, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private limited New Delhi, India.
[53]Robinson, What is a Graph Database? What is Neo4j? , 2014, retrieved by http://www.neo4j.org/.
[54]Robinson, J. Webber, and E. Eifrem, Graph Database, Neo Technology Inc., 2013, O’Reilly Media.
[55]J. Rowley, 2007. “The wisdom hierarchy: Representations of the DIKW hierarchy,” J. of Inf. Sc., vol. 33, 2007, pp. 163-180.
[56]S. Russell, and P. Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 3rd ed., 2009, Prentice Hall.
[57]P. Sajja, and A. R. Akerkar, "Knowledge-Based Systems for Development," Advanced Knowledge-Based Systems: Models, Applications and Research, vol. 1, 2010, pp. 1–11.
[58]Sandberg, and N. Bostrom, "Whole Brain Emulation: A Roadmap," Technical Report # 2008‐3, 2008, Future of Humanity Institute, Oxford University.
[59]M. K. Smith, C. Welty, and D. L. McGuinness, 2004. OWL Web Ontology Language Guide, 2004, W3C Recommendation, http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-owl-guide-20040210/.
[60]J. F. Sowa, "Conceptual graphs for a database interface," IBM J. of Research and Development, vol. 20, 1976, pp. 336-357.
[61]J. F. Sowa, Conceptual Structures: Information Processing in Mind and Machine Reading, Addison-Wesley, MA, 1984, ISBN 978-0201144727.
[62]J. F. Sowa, Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence, Stuart C. Shapiro Ed., 1992, Wiley.
[63]J. F. Sowa, Handbook of Knowledge Representation, Harmelen Ed., Elsevier, 2008, pp. 213-237.
[64]H.B. Styltsvig, "Ontology-based Information Retrieval," Ph.D. Thesis, Computer Science Section, Roskilde University, Denmark, May 2006.
[65]The Blue Brain Project, EPFL, 2012. http://jahia-prod.epfl.ch/page-58110-en.html Updated 19.06.2012.
[66]E.C. Tolman, 1948. "Cognitive maps in rats and men," Psychological Review, vol. 55, 1948, pp. 189–208, doi: 10.1037/h0061626.
[67]E. Turban, and J.E. Aronson, Decision support systems and intelligent systems, 6th ed., 2000, Prentice Hall.
[68]Vertical Applications, 2013, retrieved from W3C http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/applications.
[69]M. Watson, Practical Semantic Web and Linked Data Applications, Publication: Lulu.com, 2012, ISBN-13: 9781257167012.
[70]M. Witbrock, "Knowledge is more than Data: A Comparison of Knowledge Bases with Database," Cycorp, Inc., 2001.
[71]V. Jain and M. Singh, 2013. “Ontology Development and Query Retrieval using Protégé Tool,” I.J. Intelligent Systems and Applications, Vol.5, number 9, August 2013, pp. 67-75, DOI: 10.5815/ijisa.2013.09.08.

International Journal of Intelligent Systems and Applications (IJISA)