Millimeter-wave (mm-wave) communication stands as a vital technology for future wireless networks, necessitating efficient beamforming techniques to mitigate significant path loss and harness the extensive mm-wave spectrum. Traditional fully digital beamforming methods are often deemed unfeasible due to the substantial costs and energy requirements, which stem from the need for individual radio frequency (RF) chains for each antenna element particularly in Massive MIMO systems. Hybrid beamforming emerges as a more economical solution, reducing both hardware expenses and energy consumption by utilizing a limited number of RF chains. This paper offers an in-depth evaluation of hybrid beamforming in 5G and beyond mm-wave systems, proposing a new classification framework for various hardware configurations. The research employs a practical approach to compare different strategies, focusing on two main factors: the beam patterns produced with optimal and hybrid weights, and the resulting spectral efficiency, which is a key performance metric. The findings indicate that the beam patterns generated with both optimal and hybrid weights display comparable characteristics, especially for dominant beams. Additionally, the study shows that increasing the number of data streams leads to a significant boost in spectral efficiency, an essential element for enhancing 5G network performance. The systematic comparisons delve into the interactions and trade-offs between these design aspects, highlighting promising candidates for hybrid beamforming in the wireless communication systems of the future.

Microstrip Patch Antennas (MPAs) play a critical role in modern wireless communication systems due to their compact size, easy integration, and capability to ensure reliable communication across wide frequency ranges. This paper introduces enhanced designs of rectangular MPAs aimed at overcoming the narrow bandwidth limitation commonly found in traditional designs. Three innovative configurations are proposed: one featuring a simple rectangular slot on the ground plane, another integrating polygonal Defected Ground Structures (DGS), and a third utilizing rectangular DGS. These antennas are optimized at a frequency of 4 GHz using High Frequency Structural Simulator (HFSS) software to significantly improve antenna performance. The MPA without DGS showed a return loss of -21.124 dB at a resonant frequency of 4 GHz, with a Voltage Standing Wave Ratio(VSWR) of 4.8038 and a gain of 3.88 dBi. In contrast, the MPA with Polygonal DGS exhibited significant improvements, achieving a return loss of -26.87 dB at a resonant frequency of 4.1 GHz, along with a VSWR of 1.3721 and a gain of 4.38 dBi. Similarly, the MPA with Rectangular DGS demonstrated superior characteristics, with a return loss of -27.08 dB, resonance at 3.825 GHz, a VSWR of 1.4399, and a gain of 4.00 dBi. These results underscore the effectiveness of DGS in broadening the bandwidth and improving the performance of MPAs for applications below 6 GHz, making them highly suitable for next-generation wireless communication systems.